Eventually, the end goal of scaffolding is to render the scaffolding unnecessary - through the benefits of scaffolding, learners are now able to complete tasks and utilise new knowledge without help or guidance, and have the confidence to do this across all subjects, inside and outside of the classroom. Small steps – with practice at each stage. We need to break down our concepts and procedures (like multi-stage maths problems or writing) into small steps that each be practised. Teachers ask questions and … select students to respond based on their knowledge of the class, avoiding the pitfalls of hands-up or calling out.’ Rosenshine suggests that a success rate of around 70% is too low. In the only issue he raises with Rosenshine’s principles, Sherrington suggests that we shouldn’t worry too much about the precision here; we might find that a lower success rate is in fact optimum. The more complex and interconnected or schema are, the easier it is to make sense of new information because it is more likely to make sense.

We have probably all used scaffolding techniques at some point in our lives, but perhaps we didn’t realise it. Playing with early years children is a great example of scaffolding in practice - when we play with young children, we automatically use many of the principles highlighted by Rosenshine. Agree a focus on small number of the principles – perhaps one of the four strands I explore – with individuals committing to develop and practise them in a specific series of lessons.

Principles uncovered

Forgetting’ is a product of new information not connecting to an existing schema, or not being retrieved frequently enough.

Link abstract knowledge to experiential ‘tacit’ knowledge - e.g. hands on activities after the basic material has been introduced. Observations / visits / field work / demonstrations. These need adding in to curriculum sequencing. Rosenshine writes that less effective teachers asked fewer questions and almost no ‘process questions’ – questions about the process of learning, such as how students worked something out (contrast, for example, with factual questions) ( ibid.). Furthermore, effective questioning enables teachers to understand where misconceptions may lie and where taught input might be required to help the learner modify knowledge they have memorised. To do this effectively, Rosenshine surmised that teachers need to ask process questions, which aim to find out how a learner has worked things out, and not be satisfied with just giving a correct answer.It is at the University of Illinois that he taught educational psychology and published many papers, mainly focusing on teacher performance, direct instruction and strategies based on cognitive science. They conclude: “In any educational setting or cultural context, suggestions or guidelines for practice require sensitive and sensible application, and continuing evaluation.”

Bokhove was clear that all academic papers are prone to this “Chinese whispers” effect. But his concern was that Rosenshine’s article is not always viewed with the critical eye with which one would approach a research paper. Rather, it is taken as read that what is written is conclusive “evidence”. This book is particularly timely as the profession becomes more research engaged. It is clear and concise without being too simplistic. Having been a teacher himself, Sherrington’s experiences have allowed him to produce a book that resonates with all teachers, such that he focuses on the universal aspects of classroom practices. Value for money And I know that the informed viewpoint of a storied academic has become more than its author perhaps intended it to be - as something definitive, when it should be something we view with a lot more nuance. In short, I now know we need to take a closer look at Rosenshine’s principles of instruction. The idea behind scaffolding is that ‘cognitive supports’ are provided and are gradually withdrawn as a student gains competency. In this way, scaffolding can help to develop a student’s expertise and mastery in a subject. Rosenshine writes that thinking aloud is an example of ‘effective cognitive support’ (p. 15). But I have made up for it by publishing another 25 on the same areas, to try to get that message across that this should be about how you think about what you do, the evidence you use, the critique you use. “That list gives you probability statements, but what really matters is how you implement it.”Tom Sherrington’s book is very evidence-based, such that he takes Rosenshine’s 10 Principles of Instruction and condenses them into four strands: sequencing concepts and modelling, questioning, reviewing material, and stages of practice. The work is well researched and draws on the very best from cognitive and educational psychology. Usability So was he making compromises from the start? Paik stressed that though she and her co-editor may have shaped the article, the substance was still all Rosenshine. And rather than the format being key, what was important was the fact he was a researcher and former teacher. In her eyes, that made him the “real deal” when it came to bridging the academic/practitioner gap. It seemed that Rosenshine was a framework to permit experienced teachers to do the best things well - and to reflect on them - and a way to ensure that trainee teachers were using the right instruction methods from the off. This article originally appeared in the 4 September 2020 issue under the headline “In search of the real Rosenshine” References So, in a wide ranging conversation, Tom and I discussed the following things, and plenty more besides:

In a paper published in 2010 by the International Academy of Education (IAE); “ Principles of Instruction“, Rosenshine expanded on his original list of 6 ideas. These 17 principles were collected from the 3 areas of research above. This was the format given to Rosenshine (and all the other booklet authors). And initially he struggled with it, Paik recalled. He actually had 17 principles he believed in and wanted to include, which led to the somewhat confusing boxed-out list of 17 “ideas” that appears at the start of the booklet (see box). But after that, he dutifully followed the commission and produced only 10 in detail. The real deal Daily review supports the process of building up the amount of effective practice required to reach the level of mastery where recall is automatic. Rosenshine writes that thousands of hours of effective practice are required to reach this level (p. 13). Sherrington writes that this strategy is a ‘powerful mode of questioning and a form of guided practice’. This would need to be carefully incorporated into lesson planning for it to be successfully adopted as the default method of questioning, given the time it will take to ask each student several questions. Depending on class sizes, if it were the default approach, a set of students could be chosen each lesson to be asked questions, so there’s roughly an even balance across the students over a term or course.to serve as a guide for discussing the general nature of effective instruction”. Rosenshine, B. (1982) Teaching Functions in Instructional Programs. National Institute of Education. Washington DC Roseshine’s Principles of Instruction I loved this conversation. I always get loads from my conversations with Tom, and I am so pleased I had the opportunity to go deep into this fascinating area of teaching. Exploring Barak Rosenshine’s seminal Principles of Instruction: Why it is THE must-read for all teachers. Whilst at Illinois, Rosenshine first proposed his instructional teaching functions, on which he based his later work on the principles of instruction. Rosenshine’s Six Instructional Teaching Functions